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Note - this article is original material. There is currently a plagiarised copy of it on the site of an Indian electronics magazine credited to a rip-off artist called Indrani Bose. This page is a guide to producing consistently high quality PCBs quickly and efficiently, particularly for professional prototyping of production boards. Unlike most other PCB homebrew guides, emphasis is placed on quality, speed and repeatability rather than minimum materials cost, although the time saved by getting good PCBs every time usually saves money in the long run - even for the hobbyist, the cost of ruined PCB laminates can soon mount up! With the methods described, you can produce repeatably good single and double-sided PCBs for through-hole and surface mount designs with track densities of 40-50 tracks per inch and 0.5mm SMD pitches. This information has been condensed from over 20 years' experience of making PCBs, mostly as prototypes of boards to be put into production. If you follow the methods outlined here exactly, you WILL get excellent quality PCBs every time. By all means experiment, but remember that cutting corners can easily reduce quality & waste time. I will only consider photographic methods in depth - other methods such as transfers, plotting on copper and the various 'iron-on' toner transfer systems are not really suited for fast, repeatable use. Although I've heard some good reports from some toner transfer systems, the problem with these is that the 'expensive part' is the film, and you can't really feed much less than an A5 sheet through a laser printer, so you waste a lot on small PCBs. With photoresist laminate and cheap transparency media, you only use as much of the expensive part (the board) as you need, and offcuts can usually be used later for smaller boards. Double-sided PCBs are also rather tricky with toner-transfer methods. Artwork generationYou need to generate a positive (i.e. black = coppper) UV translucent artwork film You'll never get a good board without good artwork, so it is important to get the best possible quality at this stage.The most important thing is to get a clear sharp image with a very solid opaque black. Nowadays, artwork will almost always be drawn using either a dedicated PCB CAD program, or a suitable drawing / graphics package. The merits of various software packages will not be discussed here, other than to say that it is absolutely essential that your PCB software prints holes in the middle of pads, to act as centre-marks when drilling. It is virtually impossible to accurately hand-drill boards without these holes. If you're looking to buy PCB software at any cost level, and want to be able to do hand-prototyping of boards before production, check that this facility is available. If you're using a general purpose CAD or graphic package, define pads as either a grouped object containing a black filled circle with a smaller concentric white filled circle on top of it, or as an unfilled circle with a thick black line style (i.e. a black ring). When defining pad and line shapes, the following minimum sizes are recommended for
reliable results: The artwork must be printed such that the printed side will be in contact with the PCB surface when UV exposing, to avoid blurred edges. In practice this means that if you design the board as seen from the component side, the bottom (solder side) layer should be printed the 'correct' way round, and the top side of a double-sided board must be printed mirrored. Artwork quality is very dependant on both the output device and the media used, both of which will now be discussed. Media Contrary to what you may think, it is NOT necessary to use a transparent artwork medium
- as long as it is reasonably translucent to UV, it's fine - less translucent materials
may need a slightly longer exposure time. Line definition, black opaqueness and toner/ink
retention are much more important. Possible print media include the following: Output devices Pen plotters - very fiddly and slow, you have to use expensive polyester drafting film (tracing paper is no good as ink flows along the fibres) and you need special inks and expensive ink pens with grooved tips to get acceptable results. Pens need frequent cleaning and clog very easily. NOT Recommended. Ink-jet printers - Not tried them myself, but I hear very mixed reports from "perfect" to "useless"! The main problem will be getting an opaque enough black. They are so cheap that it's certainly worth a try, and with as many different media types as you can find, but don't expect the same quality you can get from lasers. It may also be worth trying an inkjet print onto paper, which can then be photocopied onto tracing paper with a good quality photocopier. I have had good reports from several people using tracing paper with HP Deskjets, but my Epson Stylus Photo750 inkjet is useless on tracing paper. Thanks to Douglas Makhija for the following info on using HP inkjets with tracing paper: If you plot largish ground planes directly from inkjet, both 90gsm and 112gsm tracing papers crinkle slightly in these areas (the 90 more than the 112). I find that the best procedure is to allow the inkjet plot to dry thoroughly (on an HP Deskjet 670C or 895CXi set to normal - best print quality is not necessary) and then flatten out the plot under a clean sheet of paper placed under a big heavy book - I use A4 tracing paper that I get in pad form from my local artist materials shop. I find that thoroughly dried and flattened plots are perfectly re-usable.With either HP Deskjet (670C or 895CXi), I can consistently obtain 0.005 inch exposed and developed resolution. Typesetters - for the best quality artwork, generate a
Postscript or PDF file and take it to a DTP or typesetting service, and ask them to
produce a positive film of it. This will usually have a resolution of at least 2400DPI,
absolutely opaque black and perfect sharpness. The cost is usually 'per page' regardless
of area used (UK£5 for A4 last time I did one), so if you can fit multiple copies of the
PCB, or both sides onto one sheet, you'll save money. This is also a good way to do the
occasional large PCB that won't fit your laser printer - sizes up to A3+ are widely
available, and larger ones can also be done by more specialised services. Also a useful
alternative for the highest-resolution boards that won't quite make it with other methods.
Laser printers - easily the best all-round solution. Very affordable, fast and good quality. The printer used must have at least 600dpi resolution for all but the simplest PCBs, as you will usually be working in multiples of 0.025" (40 tracks per inch). 300DPI does not divide into 40, 600DPI does, so you get consistent spacing and linewidth. It is very important that the printer produces a good solid black with no toner pinholes (pinholes in larger fill areas are acceptable). If you're planning to buy a printer for PCB use, do some test prints on tracing paper to check the quality first. If the printer has a density control, set it to 'blackest'. Even the best laser printers don't generally cover large areas (e.g. ground planes) well, but this isn't usually a problem as long as fine tracks are solid. Note that the blackness of the printing on paper doesn't always mean a good opaque result on tracing paper so always check with tracing paper if you're buying a printer for PCB work. When using tracing paper or drafting film, always use manual paper feed, and set the
straightest possible paper output path, to keep the artwork as flat as possible and
minimise jamming. For small PCBs, remember you can usually save paper by cutting the sheet
in half (e.g. cut A4 to A5) , you may need to specify a vertical offset in your
PCB software to make it print on the right part of the page. Photoresist PCB laminatesAlways use good quality pre-coated positive photoresist fibreglass (FR4) board. Check
carefully for scratches in the protective covering, and on the surface after peeling off
the covering. You don't need darkroom or subdued lighting when handling boards, as long as
you avoid direct sunlight, minimuse unnecessary light exposure, and develop immediately
after UV exposure. ExposureThe photoresist board needs to be exposed to ultra-violet light through the artwork, using a UV exposure box. UV exposure units can easily be made using standard fluorescent lamp ballasts and UV
tubes. For small PCBs, two or four 8 watt 12" tubes will be adequate, for larger (A3)
units, four 15" 15 watt tubes are ideal. To determine the tube to glass spacing,
place a sheet of tracing paper on the glass and adjust the distance to get the most even
light level over the surface of the paper. Even illumination is a lot easier to obtain
with 4-tube units. The UV tubes you need are those sold either as replacements for UV
exposure units or insect killers. I've heard reports that 'black light' tubes for disco
lighting etc. don't work very well (these have a black or dark purple appearance when
off). A timer which switches off the UV lamps automatically is essential, and should allow exposure times from 2 to 10 minutes in 30 second increments. It is very useful if the timer has an audible indication (e.g. goes 'ping') when the timing period has completed. A mechanical or electronic timer from a scrap microwave oven would be ideal. Dead scanners make ideal cases for homemade UV boxes, but make sure the case is deep enough - a nice old clunky one, not a modern slimline thing ( unless you don't mind using a lot of tubes to get even illumination). Although it is probably possible to make a UV box with UV LEDs, you'd need so many to get a decent exposure area that it is almost certainly not worth even thinking about unless you happen to have a few hundred of them and nothing more interesting to use them for. Short-term eye exposure to the correct type of UV lamp is not harmful, but can cause discomfort, especially with bigger units. Use glass sheet rather than plastic for the top of the UV unit, as it will flex less and be less prone to scratches. Normal window glass works fine.
You will need to experiment to find the required exposure time for a particular UV unit and laminate type - expose a test piece in 30 second increments from 2 to 8 minutes, develop and use the time which gave the best image. Generally speaking, overexposure is better than underexposure. (it's easier to add the odd wire-bridge than hack off a load of unwanted copper with a Dremel or deal with lots of hairline shorts on fine-pitch tracking) For a single-sided PCB, place the artwork, toner side up, on the UV box glass, peel off the protective film from the laminate, and place it sensitive side down on top of the artwork. The laminate must be pressed firmly down to ensure good contact all over the artwork, and this can be done either by placing weights on the back of the laminate (I use a few dead gel-cell lead-acid batteries for this), or by fitting the UV box with a hinged lid lined with foam rubber, which can be used to clamp the PCB and artwork. If you are using an old Scanner as a case, the lid will of course already be there. To expose double-sided PCBs, print the solder side artwork as normal, and the component side mirrored. Place the two sheets together with the toner sides facing each other, and carefully line them up, checking all over the board area for correct alignment, using the holes in the pads as a guide. A light box is very handy here, but it can be done with daylight by holding the sheets on the surface of a window. If printing errors have caused slight mis-registration, align the sheets to 'avarage' the error across the whole PCB, to avoid breaking pad edges or tracks when drilling. When they are correctly aligned, staple the sheets together on two opposite sides (3 sides for big PCBs), about 10mm from the edge of the board, forming a sleeve or envelope. The gap between the board edge and staples is important to stop the paper distorting at the edge. Use the smallest stapler you can find, so the thickness of the staple is not much more than that of the PCB. Expose each side in turn, covering up the top side with a reasonably light-proof soft cover when exposing the underside - rubber mouse mats are ideal for this. Be very careful when turning the board over, to avoid the laminate slipping inside the artwork envelope and ruining the alignment. After exposure, you can usually see a feint image of the pattern in the photosensitive layer. DevelopingThe main thing to say here is DO NOT USE SODIUM HYDROXIDE
for developing photoresist laminates. Use of Sodium hydroxide is the primary reason
people complain about poor results when trying to photo-etch PCBs. This stuff has huge advantages over sodium hydroxide, most importantly is is very hard to over-develop. You can leave the board in for several times the normal developing time without noticeable degredation. This also means it's not temperature critical - no risk of stripping at warmer temperatures. Made-up solution also has a very long shelf-life, and lasts basically until it's worn out (and even then you can just top up with more concentrate) - the concentrate lasts essentially forever. The lack of over-developing problems allows you to make the solution up really strong for very fast developing The recommended mix is 1 part developer to 9 parts water, but I usally make it stronger to develop MicroTrak laminate in about 5-10 seconds (yes, seconds - dip, rinse and it's done!) without the risk of over-development damage. You can check for correct development by dipping the board in the ferric chloride very briefly (or dribbling a few drops onto the surface) - the exposed copper should turn dull pink almost instantly, leaving the track pattern sharply defined. If any shiny copper coloured areas remain, or the gaps between tracks are 'blurry', rinse and develop for a few more seconds. If the board was under-exposed, you tend to get a thin layer of resist which isn't removed by the developer. You can often remove this by gently wiping with dry paper towel (Kitchen roll, preferably non coloured/patterned!) - the dry paper towel is just abrasive enough to remove the film without damaging the resist. You can either use a photographic developing tray or a vertical tank for developing - a
tray makes it easier to see the progress of the development. You don't need a heated tray
or tank unless the solution is really cold (<15°C). A defrost tray from a small
scrap refrigerator is a possible alternatibe ( I have been known to use the tray from my
fridge to develop & etch a particularly large PCB....). EtchingI've always used ferric chloride etchant - it's messy stuff, but easier to get and cheaper than most alternatives I've seen. It attacks ANY metal including stainless steel, so when setting up a PCB etching area, use a plastic or ceramic sink, with plastic fittings & screws wherever possible, and seal any metal screw heads etc. with silicone-rubber sealant. If copper water pipes may get splashed or dripped-on, sleeve or cover them in plastic (heat-shrink sleeving is great if you're installing new pipes). Fume extraction is not normally required, although a cover over the tank or tray when not in use is a good idea. If there is an easy way to vent fumes outside ( e.g. a cover over the tanks) this can make the fumes less objectionable but it's really not worth the hassle of setting up a powered extractor unless you have a particularly sensitive nose/throat. Power extraction is also rather problematic to do due to corrosion issues. You should always use the hexahydrate type of ferric chloride, which is light yellow,
and comes as powder or big globular granules, which should be dissolved in warm water
until no more will dissolve, giving a typically muddy brown solution. Adding a teaspoon of
table salt helps to make the etchant clearer (looks like very very strong tea) for easier
inspection. Always take extreme care to avoid splashing when dissolving either type of FeCl - it tends to clump together in the container due to absorbing moisture, and you often get big chunks coming out of the container & splashing into the solution. It will damage eyes and permanently stain clothing and pretty much anything else - use gloves and safety glasses and wash off any skin splashes immediately. If you're making PCBs in a professional environment, where time is money, you really should get a heated bubble-etch tank. With fresh hot ferric chloride, a PCB will etch in well under 5 minutes, compared to up to an hour without heat or agitation. Fast etching also produces better edge quality and consistent line widths. If you aren't using a bubble tank, you need to agitate frequently to ensure even etching. Warm the etchant by putting the etching tray inside a larger tray filled with boiling water - you want the etchant to be at least 30-50ºC for sensible etch times. Tin Plating (Don't bother...)Update - over the last couple of years when I've been doing a much higher proportion of SMD boards, I've come to the conclusion that tin-plating is not really worth the hassle - just strip the resist, rub with wire-wool, and immediately coat with a flux pen. Although you can get special stripping solutions and hand applicators, most resists can be dissolved off more easily and cleanly using methanol (methylated spirit). Hold the (rinsed and dried) PCB horizontal, and dribble few drops of methanol on the surface, tilting the PCB to allow it to run over the whole surface. Wait about 10 seconds, and wipe off with a paper towel dipped in methanol. Repeat if any resist remains. For flux-coating, use a Chemtronics CW8200 flux pen. I've found that the spray-on stuff is too sticky and thick - the pen is much cleaner and easier, and also very handy for general rework use. I've left the old section on plating below, but I don't really think it's worth it except maybe in situations where you need a finish that lasts longer than the life of a typical prototype, e.g. for edge connectors or test-point pads, or for better cosmetic appearance. Tin-plating a PCB makes it a lot easier to solder, and is pretty much essential for surface mount boards. Unless you have access to a roller-tinning machine, chemical tinning is the only option. Unfortunately, tin-plating chemicals are expensive, but the results are usually worth it. If you don't tin-plate the board, either leave the photoresist coating on (most resists are intended to act as soldering fluxes), or spray the board with rework flux to prevent the copper oxidising. A 'flux pen' (available from Chemtronics & Multicore) be used to coat smaller PCBs. I use room-temperature tin plating crystals (see Sources), which produce a good finish in a few minutes. There are other tinning chemicals available, some of which require mixing with acid, or high-temperature use - I've not tried these. Made-up tinning solution deteriorates over time, especially in contact with air, so unless you regularly make a lot of PCBs, make up small quantities at a time (just enough to cover a PCB in the tinning tray) keep the solution in a sealed bottle (ideally one of those concertina-type bottles used for some photographic solutions to exclude air), and return it to the bottle immediately after use - a few days in an open tray and it can deteriorate badly. Also take care to avoid contamination, which can very easily render the solution useless. Thoroughly rinse and dry the PCB before tinning, keep a special tray and pair of tongs specifically for tinning (to avoid contamination), and rinse them after use. Do not top-up used solution if it stops tinning - discard it, clean & rinse the tray, and make up a fresh solution. Ensure the temperature of the tinning solution is at least 25ºC, but not more than 40ºC - if required, either put the bottle in a hot water bath, or put the tinning tray in a bigger tray filled with hot water to warm it up. Putting a PCB in cold tinning solution will usually prevent tinning, even if the temperature is subsequently raised. Preparation is important for a good tinned finish - strip the photoresist thoroughly - although you can get special stripping solutions and hand applicators, most resists can be dissolved off more easily and cleanly using methanol (methylated spirit). Hold the (rinsed and dried) PCB horizontal, and dribble few drops of methanol on the surface, tilting the PCB to allow it to run over the whole surface. Wait about 10 seconds, and wipe off with a paper towel dipped in methanol. Repeat if any resist remains. Rub the copper surface all over with wire wool (which gives a much better finish than abrasive paper or those rubber 'eraser blocks') until it is bright and shiny all over, wipe with a paper towel to remove the wire wool fragments, and immediately immerse the board in the tinning solution. Take care not to touch the copper surface after cleaning, as fingermarks will impair plating. The copper should turn a silver colour within about 30 seconds, and you should leave the board for about 5 minutes, agitating occasionally (do not use bubble agitation). For double-sided PCBs, prop the PCB at an angle to ensure the solution can get to both sides. Rinse the board thoroughly, and rub dry with paper towel to remove any tinning crystal deposits, which can spoil the finish. If the board isn't going to be soldered for a day or two, coat it with flux, either with a rework flux spray or a flux pen.
DrillingIf you're using fibreglass (FR4) board, which you almost certainly will be, you MUST use tungsten carbide drill bits - fibreglass eats normal high-speed steel (HSS) bits very rapidly, although HSS drills are OK for odd larger sizes (>2mm) that you only use occasionally where the expense of a carbide isn't justified. Carbide drill bits are expensive, and the thin ones snap very easily. When using carbide drill bits below 1mm, you MUST use a good vertical drill stand - you WILL break drill bits very quickly without one, and at UK£2-3 a pop, a drill stand will quickly pay for itself. Carbide drill bits are available as straight-shank (i.e. the whole bit is the diameter of the hole), or thick shank (also called 'turbo' or 'reduced' shank) , where a standard size (typically about 3.5mm or 1/8") shank tapers down to the hole size. I much prefer the straight-shank type for sizes below about 1mm because they break less easily, the longer thin section providing more flexibility. Straight-shank drills are also usually cheaper, but sometimes less easy to obtain. When drilling with carbide bits, it's important to hold the pcb down firmly, as the drill bit can snatch the board upwards as it breaks through, and this will usually break the drill bit if the board isn't held down. Small drills for PCB use usually come with either a set of collets of various sizes or a 3-jaw chuck - sometimes the 3-jaw chuck is an optional extra, and is worth getting for the time it saves changing collets. For accuracy, however, 3-jaw chucks aren't brilliant, and small drill sizes below 1mm quickly form grooves in the jaws, preventing good grip. Below 1mm you should use collets, and buy a few extra of the smallest ones, keeping one collet per drill size, as using a larger drill in a collet will open it out so it no longer grips smaller drills well. Some cheap drills come with plastic collets - throw them away and get metal ones.
Typical hole sizes : ICs, resistors etc. 0.8mm. Larger diodes (1N4001 etc.), square-pin headers, D connectors, IDC connectors, TO-220 leads etc. : 1.0mm, terminal blocks, trimmers etc. 1.2 to 1.5mm. Avoid hole sizes less than 0.8mm unless you really need them. Always keep at least two spare 0.8mm drill bits, as they always break just when you need a PCB really urgently. 1.0mm and larger are more resilient, but one spare is always a good idea. When making two identical boards, it is possible to drill them both together to save time. To do this, carefully drill an 0.8mm hole in the pad nearest each corner of each of the two boards, taking care to get the centre as accurate as possible. For larger boards, drill a hole near the centre of each side as well. Lay the boards on top of each other, and insert an 0.8mm track pin (pictured below, under 'Through Plating') in 2 opposite corners, using the pins as pegs to line the PCBs up. Squeeze (with pliers or a vice ) or hammer the pins into the boards, and then insert and squeeze pins into the remaining holes. The two PCBs will now have been 'nailed' together accurately, and can be drilled together. Standard track pins are just the right length to fix standard 1.6mm PCBs together without potruding below the bottom board. On PCBs with several hole sizes, I'd suggest drilling the larger sizes first, as this
reduces the chance of accidentally under-drilling a hole - something you typically only
notice when the PCB is half-assembled, making it awkward to re-drill. For hole sizes over about 3mm, I'd recommend pilot-drilling at 1.0mm, then drilling to size with a conventional electric drill (preferably a cordless one with speed control) and standard HSS drill bit. Cutting
If using a hacksaw, use a long-frame type i.e. not junior) with adjsutable tension, and a medium or fine metal-cutting blade, with plenty of tension ( as tight as you can without snapping the blade). Clamp the PCB firmly, using a strip of wood to clamp the entire length of the board, close to the cut, with thin cardboard on each side of the board to avoid scratching the photoresist. Keep the saw blade angle as shallow as possible - this keeps the cut nice and straight. A carbide tile-saw blade in a jigsaw might be worth a try, but bear in mind it's easy to accidentally scratch through the protective film when sawing, causing photoresist scratches and broken tracks on the finished board - if using a jigsaw I'd suggest adding a layer of parcel tape to increase protection . If you have access to a sheet-metal guillotine, this is also excellent for cutting boards, providing the blade is fairly sharp.
If you use a saw to cut the board, take care to ensure the edges are square, as burrs on the board will raise it enough from the artwork for the UV light to get between the artwork and the board Check for burrs again once you have removed the backing sheet just before exposure. Through-plating
Note that if your PCB package draws pad holes the same size as the drill size, the pad hole can come out slightly larger than the drilled hole (e.g. from over-etching or non-centred drilling), causing connection problems with the plating. Ideally, the pad holes should be about 0.5mm (regardless of drill size) to make an accurate centre mark. I usually set the hole sizes to exactly half the drill size, so I know what the 'real' sizes should be when sending NC drill data for production PCBs Update April 2007- Copperset system mentioned above appears to be out of
production (possibly a victim of all this lead-free nonsense), but above section left here
as replacement bail bars are still available from Farnell, order codes 463-929
and
Through-plating using Rivets
This riveting system is another way to do through-plating on dense PCBs. The rivets can be used quite easily on their own without the punch tool, just a pair of fine tweezers (and a steady hand...). The 0.4mm rivets (pictured) fit a 0.6mm hole and so can be used on quite dense groups of 0.05" pad dia vias.
Recommended equipmentThree-tank unit comprising heated bubble etch, spray wash and developer tank. As a bare minimum, a bubble-etch tank and some way of rinsing boards. Photographic developing trays are adequate for developing and tinning. Different sized photographic developing trays for tinning. PCB guillotine or small sheet-metal guillotine. A Jigsaw is an alternative but you will get through baldes quickly - use medium to fine metal-cutting blades and use paper or card between the shoe-plate and the board to prevent the edge of the show damaging the resist. PCB drill - precision drill with metal collets and good quality stand. A foot pedal on/off control is a very useful addition. If running water is not available, get a hand-held spray bottle (as sold for garden insect sprays etc.) for rinsing PCBs. SourcesDeveloper : Thanks to Robin Moorshead for the following procedure to make silicate developer
solution: UK Mega Electronics, Cambridge
UK 01223 893900.
Also available in powdered form, order code 600-008 (50g, makes 1 litre), 600-007 (500g, makes 10L). I haven't tried the powdered version - the catalogue mentions a limited shelf-life of made-up solution for the powder - the liquid stuff lasts indefinitely.
THE tool for cutting PCBs. If you do a lot of PCBs you NEED one of these.
Rapid are also incredibly cheap for a lot of run-of-the mill electronic components - much cheaper than RS, Farnell, Maplin etc. GCL Supplier of bubble etch & processing tanks, UV exposure units and lightboxes.
RS have some unusual photoresist PCB laminates from CIF to their range, including 70 micron (2 oz.) copper, 0.4 and 0.8mm mm thickness and PTFE (Duroid). They also have a reasonable range of general PCB materials, as well as a range of UV tubes (search for 'insect killer' on their site)). CPC also stock some CIF lines Holders stock a wide range of PCB materials and equipment - although they but appear to be geared towards supplying commercial PCB houses, they tell me that they are happy to supply small users and have no minimum orders for drills, routers or FR4 laminates. ESR stock a range of PCB equipment and materials, including some cheap reground reduced-shank carbide drill bits. http://www.fortex.co.uk/ UK supplier of PCB making equipment TLC (bottom of page) Sell UV tubes at very good prices CPC (UK) sell UV tubes for exposure boxes. LP01874 (8W 12") LP01875 (15W 18"). They also do 'U' format tubes, ballasts and tube caps, as well as a range of PCB laminates etc. including some of the CIF specialist stuff like flexi. USA If anyone has info on good sources inside or outside the UK, please let me know & I'll add them here. I can't be bothered with all this- where can I get small quantity PCBs made by someone..?For prototypes, I have used PCB-Pool a lot. Quality
and service has been excellent, and for 1-offs and small numbers pricing is pretty good
due to lack of 1-off costs. They are rather expensive for larger numbers however. Others I have not tried :
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